Most important scientific discoveries

We asked 12 models: The most important scientific discoveries in history: findings about how nature works, not inventions, technologies, or practices such as the wheel, fire, or vaccination. Each named its own top 10.

Agreement between models: 55%
Same model, run twice: 74%
Different picks: 21

When agreement between models is well below a model's agreement with itself, the split reflects real differences in taste rather than randomness.

The consensus

Each cell is the position that model gave the pick; blank means it left the pick off. Click a row for each model's reasoning.

#	Pick	Listed by	Claude Opus 5.5	GPT-6.1 Sol	Gemini 4 Argon	Qwen 3.8 Max	DeepSeek V4 Pro	GLM-5.3	Grok 4.7	Muse Wonder	Kimi K3	MiniMax M3	Mistral Large 4	Nemotron 3 Ultra
1	Natural selection	12/12	1	1	2	1	1	1	2	1	1	1	1	1
Claude Opus 5.5 (#1) Explains the diversity and origin of all life through one mechanism. GPT-6.1 Sol (#1) Explains life's diversity and adaptation, unifying biology within a single causal framework. Qwen 3.8 Max (#1) Unifies all biology with a natural explanatory mechanism DeepSeek V4 Pro (#1) The mechanism explaining all biological complexity and diversity on Earth. GLM-5.3 (#1) Explains all life's diversity through one unifying mechanism. Muse Wonder (#1) Explains all life's diversity and unity with one mechanism. Kimi K3 (#1) Unified all biology, explaining life's diversity and complexity without design. MiniMax M3 (#1) Unified all life sciences by explaining biological diversity and adaptation. Mistral Large 4 (#1) Unifies all biology; explains life's diversity and adaptation. Nemotron 3 Ultra (#1) Unifying framework for all biology. Gemini 4 Argon (#2) Unified all of biology by explaining the diversity and adaptation of life. Grok 4.7 (#2) Accounts for the diversity and adaptation of living organisms.
2	Germ theory	12/12	5	2	3	5	3	5	10	6	6	9	2	5
GPT-6.1 Sol (#2) Revealed the microbial causes of infectious diseases, fundamentally transforming humanity's understanding of illness. Mistral Large 4 (#2) Revolutionized medicine; transformed how we understand and fight illness. Gemini 4 Argon (#3) Revealed microorganisms as the cause of infectious diseases, transforming human longevity. DeepSeek V4 Pro (#3) Showed that microorganisms cause illness, transforming medicine forever. Claude Opus 5.5 (#5) Identified microbes as disease causes, transforming medicine and lifespan. Qwen 3.8 Max (#5) Revealed microbes as cause of disease, transforming medicine GLM-5.3 (#5) Identified microbes as illness cause, founded modern medicine. Nemotron 3 Ultra (#5) Microorganisms cause infectious diseases. Muse Wonder (#6) Revealed invisible microbes cause disease, transforming biology and medicine. Kimi K3 (#6) Established microorganisms as disease cause, revolutionizing medicine and public health. Grok 4.7 (#10) Identifies microorganisms as the cause of many diseases.
3	DNA structure	11/12	6	6	5	4		2	7	4	4	8	3	2
GLM-5.3 (#2) Double helix revealed heredity's molecular basis. Nemotron 3 Ultra (#2) Molecular basis of heredity and life. Mistral Large 4 (#3) Decoded life's instruction manual; launched modern genetics and medicine. Qwen 3.8 Max (#4) Molecular basis of heredity and all of life Muse Wonder (#4) Explained heredity's storage, replication, and mutation in molecular structure. Kimi K3 (#4) Identified molecular mechanism of heredity, founding molecular biology. Gemini 4 Argon (#5) Revealed the molecular mechanism of heredity and the code of life. Claude Opus 5.5 (#6) Showed how heredity is physically stored and copied. GPT-6.1 Sol (#6) Revealed the molecular structure that explains how hereditary information can be stored and copied. Grok 4.7 (#7) Reveals the molecular basis of heredity and replication. MiniMax M3 (#8) Revealed molecular basis of heredity and life's information system.
4	Universal gravitation	10/12	2	4	1	3		4	4	3	7	6		7
Gemini 4 Argon (#1) Proved the same physical laws govern both earthly motion and the cosmos. Claude Opus 5.5 (#2) Unified heavens and earth under one mathematical law. Qwen 3.8 Max (#3) Unified celestial and terrestrial mechanics mathematically Muse Wonder (#3) First unified terrestrial and celestial motion under one law. GPT-6.1 Sol (#4) Unified terrestrial and celestial motion under one quantitative law. GLM-5.3 (#4) United celestial and terrestrial motion under one law. Grok 4.7 (#4) Unifies terrestrial and celestial motion under one force. Kimi K3 (#7) First unified terrestrial and celestial mechanics under single mathematical law.
5	General relativity	10/12	9		9	6		7	5	2	2	4	4	3
Muse Wonder (#2) Redefined gravity, space, and time; predicted radically confirmed phenomena. Kimi K3 (#2) Replaced Newtonian gravity with spacetime curvature, enabling modern cosmology. Nemotron 3 Ultra (#3) Gravity as spacetime curvature. MiniMax M3 (#4) Revolutionized understanding of gravity, space, time, and the cosmos. Mistral Large 4 (#4) Rewrote gravity, space, and time; remains our deepest cosmological framework. Grok 4.7 (#5) Describes gravity as the geometry of spacetime. Qwen 3.8 Max (#6) Gravity as spacetime curvature; underpins cosmology GLM-5.3 (#7) Revealed spacetime, gravity, and the universe's large-scale behavior. Claude Opus 5.5 (#9) Recast gravity as spacetime curvature, enabling modern cosmology.
6	Heliocentrism	9/12	4	10	10	2		3		8	5	2	8
Qwen 3.8 Max (#2) Moved Earth from cosmic center; foundation of modern astronomy MiniMax M3 (#2) Placed Earth as a planet orbiting the Sun, transforming cosmology. GLM-5.3 (#3) Displaced Earth from cosmic center, launched modern astronomy. Claude Opus 5.5 (#4) Removed Earth from center, launching the scientific revolution. Kimi K3 (#5) Displaced Earth from cosmic center, launching the Scientific Revolution. Muse Wonder (#8) Displaced Earth from the cosmic center, launching modern astronomy. Mistral Large 4 (#8) Displaced Earth from center; sparked the scientific revolution itself. Gemini 4 Argon (#10) Displaced Earth from the center of the universe, igniting the scientific revolution.
7	Quantum mechanics	7/12	7						3	5	3	3	5	4
Grok 4.7 (#3) Governs matter and energy at the smallest scales. Kimi K3 (#3) Revealed probabilistic nature of reality at fundamental scales, underlying all modern physics. MiniMax M3 (#3) Fundamental theory governing matter and energy at atomic scales. Nemotron 3 Ultra (#4) Fundamental description of matter and energy. Mistral Large 4 (#5) Governs the microscopic world; underlies chemistry, materials, and modern tech. Claude Opus 5.5 (#7) Revealed the probabilistic rules governing the microscopic world.
8	Atomic theory	6/12	3	3			6	6	1				7
Grok 4.7 (#1) Explains the composition and behavior of all ordinary matter. Claude Opus 5.5 (#3) Matter is made of atoms; foundation of chemistry and physics. GPT-6.1 Sol (#3) Established matter's particulate structure, providing the foundation for modern chemistry and much of physics. DeepSeek V4 Pro (#6) Confirmed matter is composed of discrete atoms, foundation of all chemistry. GLM-5.3 (#6) Matter is atoms; underpins chemistry and physics. Mistral Large 4 (#7) Foundation of chemistry and physics; reveals matter's fundamental structure.
9	Cell theory	6/12		7		9	2		8			7	10
DeepSeek V4 Pro (#2) Established that all living things are built from the same fundamental unit. GPT-6.1 Sol (#7) Established cells as life's fundamental structural units, revealing the shared organization of living organisms. MiniMax M3 (#7) Established that all life is composed of cells, the basic unit. Grok 4.7 (#8) Establishes cells as the basic units of life.
10	Conservation of energy	6/12		5				10	9	9		5	9
GPT-6.1 Sol (#5) Identified a universal constraint governing physical processes, linking mechanics, heat, chemistry, and biology. MiniMax M3 (#5) First law of thermodynamics; energy cannot be created or destroyed. Muse Wonder (#9) Universal constraint governing every physical and chemical process.
11	Periodic law	4/12			6	10	4							6
DeepSeek V4 Pro (#4) Uncovered the organizing principle behind all chemical elements. Gemini 4 Argon (#6) Organized chemical elements by atomic properties, revealing the underlying structure of matter. Nemotron 3 Ultra (#6) Systematic organization of chemical elements. Qwen 3.8 Max (#10) Ordered elements, revealing underlying structure of matter
12	Electromagnetism	7/12	8	8		8			6	10	9	10
Grok 4.7 (#6) Unifies electricity, magnetism, and light as one interaction. Claude Opus 5.5 (#8) Unified electricity, magnetism, and light in one field theory. Kimi K3 (#9) Unified electricity, magnetism, and light as manifestations of single force. MiniMax M3 (#10) Unified electricity and magnetism into one coherent theory.
13	Plate tectonics	5/12					7	9		7	8		6
Mistral Large 4 (#6) Explains earthquakes, volcanoes, and continent drift; unifies geology. DeepSeek V4 Pro (#7) Explained continental drift, earthquakes, and mountain formation as one system. Muse Wonder (#7) Unified Earth's surface geology, continents, oceans, and earthquakes. Kimi K3 (#8) Unified geology, explaining continental drift, earthquakes, and mountain formation. GLM-5.3 (#9) Unified geology by explaining continents, quakes, mountains.
14	Electromagnetic induction	5/12	10		4		8				10			8
Gemini 4 Argon (#4) Uncovered the fundamental link between electricity and magnetism, enabling modern power. DeepSeek V4 Pro (#8) Revealed the unified relationship between electricity and magnetism. Nemotron 3 Ultra (#8) Foundation of electricity and magnetism.
15	Wave-particle duality	2/12			8	7
Gemini 4 Argon (#8) Exposed the probabilistic, quantum nature of reality at the subatomic scale.

6 lower-scoring picks are not shown; every ballot below lists them in full.

Most divisive

Picks most models listed, at very different positions

Germ theory#2 for GPT-6.1 Sol #10 for Grok 4.7
Heliocentrism#2 for Qwen 3.8 Max #10 for Gemini 4 Argon
Cell theory#2 for DeepSeek V4 Pro #10 for Mistral Large 4

Hot takes

Picks that appear on only one ballot

DNA as hereditary material at #5, only DeepSeek V4 Pro
Special relativity at #7, only Gemini 4 Argon
Electromagnetic nature of light at #9, only GPT-6.1 Sol
Theory of relativity at #9, only DeepSeek V4 Pro
Big Bang theory at #10, only Nemotron 3 Ultra

Every ballot

Hover a pick to find it on the other ballots. Marked picks appear on no other ballot.

Claude Opus 5.5

Natural selection
Universal gravitation
Atomic theory
Heliocentrism
Germ theory
DNA structure
Quantum mechanics
Electromagnetism
General relativity
Electromagnetic induction

70% with consensus · 96% self-consistent

GPT-6.1 Sol

Natural selection
Germ theory
Atomic theory
Universal gravitation
Conservation of energy
DNA structure
Cell theory
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetic nature of light
Heliocentrism

76% with consensus · 76% self-consistent

Gemini 4 Argon

Universal gravitation
Natural selection
Germ theory
Electromagnetic induction
DNA structure
Periodic law
Special relativity
Wave-particle duality
General relativity
Heliocentrism

53% with consensus · 84% self-consistent

Qwen 3.8 Max

Natural selection
Heliocentrism
Universal gravitation
DNA structure
Germ theory
General relativity
Wave-particle duality
Electromagnetism
Cell theory
Periodic law

74% with consensus · 66% self-consistent

DeepSeek V4 Pro

Natural selection
Cell theory
Germ theory
Periodic law
DNA as hereditary material
Atomic theory
Plate tectonics
Electromagnetic induction
Theory of relativity
Laws of thermodynamics

54% with consensus · 69% self-consistent

GLM-5.3

Natural selection
DNA structure
Heliocentrism
Universal gravitation
Germ theory
Atomic theory
General relativity
Laws of thermodynamics
Plate tectonics
Conservation of energy

78% with consensus · 91% self-consistent

Grok 4.7

Atomic theory
Natural selection
Quantum mechanics
Universal gravitation
General relativity
Electromagnetism
DNA structure
Cell theory
Conservation of energy
Germ theory

49% with consensus · 62% self-consistent

Muse Wonder

Natural selection
General relativity
Universal gravitation
DNA structure
Quantum mechanics
Germ theory
Plate tectonics
Heliocentrism
Conservation of energy
Electromagnetism

74% with consensus · 79% self-consistent

Kimi K3

Natural selection
General relativity
Quantum mechanics
DNA structure
Heliocentrism
Germ theory
Universal gravitation
Plate tectonics
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetic induction

70% with consensus · 91% self-consistent

MiniMax M3

Natural selection
Heliocentrism
Quantum mechanics
General relativity
Conservation of energy
Universal gravitation
Cell theory
DNA structure
Germ theory
Electromagnetism

62% with consensus · 60% self-consistent

Mistral Large 4

Natural selection
Germ theory
DNA structure
General relativity
Quantum mechanics
Plate tectonics
Atomic theory
Heliocentrism
Conservation of energy
Cell theory

87% with consensus · 81% self-consistent

Nemotron 3 Ultra

Natural selection
DNA structure
General relativity
Quantum mechanics
Germ theory
Periodic law
Universal gravitation
Electromagnetic induction
Laws of thermodynamics
Big Bang theory

71% with consensus · 39% self-consistent

Who agrees with whom

Overlap between two models' lists, weighted toward the top · 100 means identical · Color runs from 29 (lightest) to 87 (darkest)

	Claude Opus 5.5	GPT-6.1 Sol	Gemini 4 Argon	Qwen 3.8 Max	DeepSeek V4 Pro	GLM-5.3	Grok 4.7	Muse Wonder	Kimi K3	MiniMax M3	Mistral Large 4	Nemotron 3 Ultra
Claude Opus 5.5		75	56	75	49	74	55	68	63	60	58	57
GPT-6.1 Sol	75		50	62	58	64	54	58	51	56	68	51
Gemini 4 Argon	56	50		53	42	46	36	49	39	31	44	47
Qwen 3.8 Max	75	62	53		45	80	43	73	67	72	61	62
DeepSeek V4 Pro	49	58	42	45		50	29	45	44	41	57	51
GLM-5.3	74	64	46	80	50		44	68	66	63	68	72
Grok 4.7	55	54	36	43	29	44		50	50	54	44	45
Muse Wonder	68	58	49	73	45	68	50		87	66	75	75
Kimi K3	63	51	39	67	44	66	50	87		74	72	78
MiniMax M3	60	56	31	72	41	63	54	66	74		61	63
Mistral Large 4	58	68	44	61	57	68	44	75	72	61		74
Nemotron 3 Ultra	57	51	47	62	51	72	45	75	78	63	74